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Sanatana Dharma and Hinduism ***Govinda's
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Site to Close on January 1, 2006 Appeal for Help ***Food Alert Newletter*** lists common products containing meat that you may be eating everyday. "What is Kosher Gelatin" :What is Wrong with Red Food Dye" "What Are Natural Flavorings and why they are often Meat" and much more. To recieve regular Food Alert Newsletters Please Enter Your Email Address Hinduism Hinduism is also called sanatana-dharma. The English word "religion" does not quite encompass the meaning of sanatana-dharma. "Religion" conveys the idea of a particular faith, but faith may change. One may have faith in a particular process or path, and he may then change and adopt another. Sanatana-dharma refers to that activity which cannot be changed. Sanatana-dharma is therefore not something sectarian. Rather, it refers to the duty all living entities in this world possess-to understand our spiritual essence and to understand our relationship with God. Sanatana-dharma is also different from what many people in the West have come to understand as dharma. Dharma is commonly understood as performing the duty of serving family and country. Sanatana, however, means "eternal, that which has neither beginning nor end." Sanatana-dharma is the eternal occupation of the living entity. That eternal dharma is to serve God. There are basically three schools of thought in Hinduism, the Vaishnavas,
the Shaivites (followers of Siva and Shakti), and the impersonalists.
According to Vaishnavas, there is only one God, but he may be known
by different names. In the Christian religion he is known as Jehovah,
the Muslims call him Allah, and the Vaishnavas call him Krishna or
Vishnu. Shaivites believe that Siva is supreme. Impersonalists believe
that everything is one, and that when they attain self-realization
they will become one with God and become formless. God can expand himself into unlimited forms. Avataras, or incarnations,
are God directly. There are also servants of God called demigods-living
beings who have been given the power to administer the universe. These
demigods are sometimes worshiped as supreme, although they are actually
only powerful living beings and not the Supreme Divinity in themselves.
According to the Hindu pantheon, there are 33 million demigods, all
of whom worship the Supreme Lord. Hindus worship demigods to obtain
material benefits because the demigods administer various material
facilities. After long worship, the worshipers usually receive their
benediction, but the benediction is generally temporary. Many people say that the gods of Hinduism were developed over a long period of time and were changed by people who migrated to India. Other people say that these gods are eternal and have been mentioned in the Vedas from time eternal. According to the Vedic scriptures the second conclusion is correct. The Word
Hindu Nowadays, the word "Hindu" is used to describe
worshipers of the Hindu gods-those who worship Vishnu, Krishna, Siva,
Durga, or anyone else. Their scriptures (sastra) are the Vedas. Basic Philosophy A common understanding in Hinduism is that we are not
our bodies, but we are eternal spirit souls. At the present time we
are under the influence of the material nature, but our duty is to get
freed from this influence. The nature of the material world is that problems automatically appear, even without us wanting them. They are like a forest fire that somehow blazes without being set by anyone. No one wants fire, and yet it takes place, and we become perplexed. The Vedas advise that in order to solve the perplexities of life and to understand the science of the solution, one must approach a spiritual master who is in the disciplic succession. On Chanting
Hare Krishna There is no need, therefore, to understand the language
of the mantra, nor is there any need of any mental speculation or intellectual
adjustment for chanting this maha-mantra. It springs automatically from
the spiritual platform, and thus anyone can take part in the chanting
without any previous qualification and dance in ecstasy. We have seen
this practically. Even a child can take part in the chanting and dancing.
Of course, for one who is too much entangled in material life, it takes
a little more time to come to the standard point, but even such a materially
engrossed person is very quickly raised to the spiritual platform. When
the mantra is chanted by a pure devotee of the Lord, it has the greatest
effect on hearers, and therefore this chanting should be heard from
the lips of a pure devotee of the Lord, so that immediate effects can
be achieved. As far as possible, chanting from the lips of nondevotees
should be avoided, just as one would avoid milk touched by the lips
of a serpent because it has poisonous effects. The Hara is a form of addressing the energy of the Lord,
and the words Krishna and Rama (when mean "the highest pleasure
eternal") are forms of addressing the Lord Himself. Hara is the
supreme pleasure energy of the Lord, and when addressed as Hare in the
vocative, She helps us to reach the Supreme Lord. The material energy, called maya, is also one of the multienergies
of the Lord, and we, the living entitles, are the marginal energy of
the Lord. The living entities are described as superior to the material
energy. When this superior energy is in contact with the inferior energy,
an incompatible situation arises, but when the superior marginal energy
is in contact with the spiritual energy, Hara, the living entity is
established in his happy, normal condition. These three words, namely Hare, Krishna, and Rama, are
the transcendental seeds of the maha-mantra. The chanting is a spiritual
call for the Lord and His internal energy Hara to protect the conditional
soul. This chanting is exactly like the genuine cry of a child for its
mother. Mother Hara helps the devotee achieve the grace of the Supreme
Father, Hari or Krishna, and the Lord reveals Himself to the devotee
who chants this mantra sincerely. Therefore no other means of spiritual realization is as effective in this age of quarrel and hypocrisy as the chanting of the maha-mantra: Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare/ Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama, Rama, Hare, Hare. Bhagavad
Gita The Bhagavad-gita is considered by many to be the most
important chapter of the Mahabharata, and it is the essence of its instructions.
It consists of eighteen chapters and seven hundred verses. The battle
of Kurukshetra, which lasted for eighteen days, was fought between the
Pandavas and the Kauravas and their respective armies totaled approximately
five million men. Many scholars accept this battle as allegorical, but
followers of Vedic culture believe the battle actually took place about
five thousand years ago. The Gita is like the "Bible" of India. It is
the most popular book read by Hindus, and is studied by scholars around
the world. Its first instruction is that we are not the body but eternal
spirit soul temporarily encaged within the body. It concludes that the
perfection of life is total surrender to God and to act according to
His desire. Krishna says, "Always think of me, become my devotee,
worship me and offer your homage unto me. Thus you will come to me without
fail. I promise you this because you are my very dear friend." Bhagavad-gita is highly recommended reading for one who wants to understand the essence of the Vedic teachings. Bhagavad
Gita Verses OM/ AUM The sound of OM is eternal and goes beyond the conceptions
of time. It is pronounced with a nasalized ending, a sound between an
N and an M. OM is used to begin sacrifices, mediation, prayers, and
before the performance of yoga. To obtain the true benefit of this powerful
mantra, one must chant it with full concentration. OM is the symbolic
sound representation of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. There is
no difference between the Supreme Personality of Godhead and OM. These three symbolic representations are used by Brahmins while chanting Vedic hymns and during sacrifices performed for the satisfaction of the Supreme. In the Vedic hymns, the word OM is always present. Hindu Trinity Worship A person engaged in home worship will perform aratik,
which usually consists of offering incense, a lamp, and flowers. Other
items may also be offered. Food is also offered to the different gods. It is considered important for all Hindus to make regular
visits to temples. A person may visit a temple every day or even several
times a day. They may also visit several different temples in a day.
Other people, especially those who live a good distance from a temple,
may visit the temple only on festival days. Important festivals must
be observed. Mantra meditation or chanting the holy names of God is also considered worship. Devotees sing songs (bhajans) to glorify God. The Vedas According to the Bhavisya Purana, the Vedas include the
original four Vedas-Rig, Atharva, Yajur, and Sama-the Upanisads, the
Mahabharata (which includes the Bhagavad-gita), the Pancaratna, the
Ramayana, and the Puranas. Many scholars say that only the original
four Vedas (Rig, Atharva, Yajur, and Sama) can be considered real Vedic
literature. This is neither accepted by the Vedas themselves nor by
the important Vedic teachers such as Sankara, Ramanuja, or Madhvacarya.
The Chandogya Upanisad states that the Puranas and Itihasas (histories)
are the fifth Veda. The main criterion for a literature to be accepted as
Vedic is that it must have the same purport and conclusion as the original
Vedic scriptures. Any work that expands on the Vedic conclusion without
changing its meaning can be accepted as Vedic. The Vedic scriptures are vast. The Mahabharata has 110,000
couplets, the Rig Veda 1,017 hymns, and the eighteen main Puranas hundreds
of thousands of verses. The Rig Veda has hymns glorifying gods such as Indra (King
of Heaven), Surya (Sun) and Agni (fire). It also describes different
sacrifices that can be performed. The Yajur Veda explains the rules
of some religious rituals. It describes how to do a Vedic sacrifice
and how to make an altar. The Sama Veda (1549 hymns) deals with chanting.
Sama means "melody." It discusses such gods as Indra, Agni
and Soma (the Moon god). The Atharva Veda (6000 verses) contains many
mantras that are used in sacrifices and is said to have been written
by the Sage Atharva. Vedic literature provides knowledge of self-realization
and liberation (moksha) from material bondage and suffering. It teaches
that the material body is temporary and that one should not resign himself
to this temporary and miserable world but try to find permanent happiness.
This is done by serving the Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is known
in the Vedas as Krishna or Vishnu. The Vedas are considered eternal. They do not come from
any materially conditioned person but from the Supreme. They cannot
be understood by logic or experimentation, as they are inconceivable.
They must be understood by hearing from an authoritative source. The
knowledge of the Vedas is considered complete and infallible. One of the main Vedas is the Manusmriti (the codes of Manu). This is one of the Dharma Sutras or Vedas that give men moral rules of conduct and duties to perform. It describes what is sinful, what punishment should be given, performance of sacrifice, the duties of women, funeral ceremonies, purification rituals and many other subjects. It basically deals with the laws of man. Puranas Mahabharata The Mahabharata is about the five sons of Maharaja Pandu-Yudhisthira,
Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, and the events leading up to and
following the Battle of Kurukshetra. After a period of time, the Pandavas returned to the court
and requested that their kingdom be returned. When Duryodhana refused,
the Pandavas proposed that the kingdom be divided equally between the
cousins. The court ministers convinced Duryodhana to agree. The Kauravas
(sons of Dhritarastra) got Hastinapur for their capital and the Pandavas
got Indraprastha (now greater Delhi). Eventually, Duryodhana devised a dice game in which the
Pandavas were cheated of their entire kingdom, including their wife
Draupadi. The Kauravas attempted to strip Draupadi in public, but Krishna
protected her. The Pandavas then had to go into exile for twelve years
in the forest and then live for one year incognito. During the thirteenth
year, the Pandavas lived in the service of the King of Virata. When their exile was over, the Pandavas returned and demanded
that their kingdom be restored. Again Duryodhana refused. The Pandavas,
hoping to avoid war, requested five villages to rule. Again Duryodhana
refused. Ultimately, his refusal led to the battle at Kurukshetra (north
of Delhi). It was just prior to this battle that the Bhagavad-gita was
spoken. The Kauravas side was at first commanded by Grandfather
Bhisma, but he was eventually wounded during the battle. The battle
lasted for eighteen days, and millions of soldiers were killed. Most
of the Kauravas were killed in this battle. On the last day of battle,
Bhima and Duryodhana fought a duel with clubs. After a vicious fight
in which Bhima smashed Duryodhana's thighs and won, the Pandavas won
back their kingdom. Yudhisthira was then crowned Emperor. Not long after the battle of Kurukshetra, the Pandavas renounced the kingdom and installed their grandson Pariksit on the throne. They then headed to the Himalayas to start their journey toward Heaven. Eventually, Yudhisthira was the only one to reach his goal, but upon reaching the heavenly kingdom, Yudhisthira insisted that his four brothers and Draupadi be admitted along with him. Ramayana Rama later married Sita, the daughter of King Janaka.
King Janaka organized a svayamvara, a competition to see who was qualified
to marry his daughter. The winner had to string Lord Siva's bow and
hit a target. Only Rama was able to string the bow, what to speak of
hit the target. As Rama was Lord Vishnu and Sita was Lakshmi, this marriage
was predestined. In this way, Rama, along with his devoted wife, Sita,
and his brother Laksman, went to the forest, and not long after Dasarath
expired. When Bharata, who was away at the time, returned to Ayodhya,
he did not wish to rule due to his affection for Rama. He followed Rama
to the forest and begged him to return. Rama refused, however, in order
to maintain his father's promise. Bharata agreed to rule on Rama's behalf,
set Rama's sandals on the throne, and lived a life of asceticism outside
the city gates until Rama's return. While in the forest, Ravana, king of Lanka, kidnapped Sita and brought her to his kingdom. Rama and Laksman then went out to search for Sita. During this time they met Sugriva, the monkey king, and Hanuman, his minister. The devoted Hanuman eventually found Sita in Lanka. Rama and Laksman, along with the monkey army, attacked Lanka. After much fighting, the ten-headed Ravana was killed and Sita was recovered. Rama then returned to Ayodhya and assumed the throne. Srimad-Bhagavatam
The Srimad-Bhagavatam describes stories about the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. The tenth book deals in detail with the pastimes of Lord Krishna himself. The last book discusses Kali-yuga, the present age of quarrel, and the future. Guru
The guru must come in a bona fide disciplic succession
and have complete knowledge of the Absolute Truth. The faithful disciple
becomes the next guru. His or her relationship, therefore, is not only
with the guru but also with the guru's spiritual succession or unbroken
chain of masters. This chain of disciplic succession is called sampradaya
or parampara. A true guru teaches by example. He must have renounced
the four sinful activities: intoxication, gambling, illicit sex (sex
outside of marriage), and meat-eating. He has to have complete control
of his senses and of his speech. Disciples must surrender themselves completely and become
humble servants of the guru. They must make following the guru's instructions
their life's mission. The most important attributes of a disciple are
faith, service, and submissive inquiry. The disciple should not serve
a spiritual master blindly, but must also inquire from him about the
ultimate solution to life's problems and about the Absolute Truth. The
disciple should also be careful to ensure that the guru practices what
he preaches. The secrets to the goal of life given by the bona fide
guru are open to everyone regardless of caste, creed, or nationality,
but they remain secrets unless the disciples has the sincerity and the
honest desire to know the goal of life. To understand the goal of life,
a disciple must follow regulations of purification assigned by the guru.
There are two types of gurus, diksha-guru (initiating spiritual master) and shiksha-guru (instructing spiritual master). One keeps his diksha-guru for life. A shiksha-guru is one who provides instructions on the path. For a shiksha-guru to be effective, he much speak exactly the same instructions as the diksha-guru has spoken and not contradict him. Four Main
Schools of Thought and Markings of Different Sects Worshipers of Siva may also worship Ganesh and Karttikeya
(Skanda), Siva's sons. Shaktas may worship the many forms of Durga,
such as Parvati or Kali. Durga is the most commonly worshiped form and
has many temples of her own throughout India. The different sects wear different markings on their foreheads,
chests, and arms to identify to which sect they belong (the markings
are applied also to sanctify the body). You can tell the difference
between the sects by the forehead marks. Vertical marks mean devotees
of Vishnu; horizontal marks indicate devotees of Siva. Siva's devotees
usually wear rudraksha beads around their necks, while devotees of Vishnu
or Krishna wear tulasi beads. Worshipers of Siva have two or more horizontal lines,
with or without a dot above or below them. Also a crescent moon or a
trident, Siva's own markings, indicate a Shaivite. There may also be
an oval or half-oval, said to symbolize Siva's third eye. Vaishnavas are divided into worshipers of Lord Krishna
and his consort Radha, worshipers of Lord Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi,
and worshipers of Lord Rama and his consort Sita. Lord Krishna is often
worshiped by himself or with Rukmini, his chief wife. Often Krishna
and Vishnu are worshiped in temples alone, without their consorts. Often
each type of worshiper has their own sectarian markings. Deities of Ganesh or Karttikeya wear the marks of Siva
on them. Krishna, Rama, Hanuman, and Indra have the marks of Vishnu
on them. Brahma has the markings of both Vishnu and Siva on him. Vaishnava
Philosophy A common misconception is that Krishna is an incarnation
of Vishnu. Actually, Krishna is supreme. Even though Vishnu and Krishna
are basically nondifferent, still, one expanded from the other. According
to scripture, Vishnu is an expansion of Krishna. The analogy is that
when one candle lights another, they both have the same potency, but
one is always the original flame. Vishnu is the administrative form
of Lord Krishna, while Krishna is always engaged in enjoying with his
devotees. Another common misconception is that God is ultimately formless. If one accepts that God is all-powerful, then why is he not powerful enough to be a person? Rather, it is seen that behind all energy a person is working. A common idea is that Lord Siva is supreme, but according to Vaishnava philosophy even Lord Siva, who is very powerful, is Vishnu's servant. Also there is the misconception that there are many gods in Hinduism, but according to Vaishnava philosophy there is only one God, which is commonly accepted by most religions. Vaishnava
Sampradayas Karma
Everyone creates their own karma out of their particular
desires to enjoy this world in different ways. Neither God nor anyone
else can be held responsible for our karma; we create our own destiny. In one sense, all karma is bondage. Even pious activities
bind a person to the material world. The goal of life is to be free
from karma, and to therefore become free from the wheel of repeated
birth and death. A person cannot become free from karma simply by renouncing
activity. He or she must engage in transcendental activities-that is,
by serving the Supreme Personality of Godhead, who will then intervene
and free us from previous karmic reactions. Vikarmas activities are actions that are irreligious and should not be performed. These activities give you bad reactions. A person acting in God consciousness is performing transcendental activities and these activities are considered akarma or activities that have no reaction. To engage in the service of God makes one immune to all sorts of reactionary elements of work. Reincarnation The Padma Purana states that there are 8,400,000 species
of life. The Vedic conclusion does not agree with Darwin's theory of
evolution. According to the Vedas, all species were created simultaneously
and did not evolve over a period of time. Rather, the soul evolves through
each of them until it reaches the human form of life, when there is
a chance to cultivate self-realization and become liberated. Samsara
Kundalini
Yoga Each chakra has the form of a lotus, with the petals representing
different mystical qualities. Different deities are represented by each
chakra. It is said that the goddess Devi (Kundalini, the serpent power)
surrounds the muladhara chakra. When it is awakened by different Tantric
yoga processes, it rises to the sahara-padma chakra. To reach the ultimate stage, a yogi blocks the evacuating
hole with the heel of the foot. He then progressively moves the life
air on and on to the six different chakras. One reaches the Svadhisthana
chakra, which is the powerhouse of the life air and then one proceeds
up until he reaches the Ajna chakra. One then pushes the life air up
between the eyebrows, and then, blocking the seven outlets of the life
air, should then reach the cerebral hole and give up his material connections,
having gone to the Supreme. The life air passes through seven openings, namely two
eyes, two nostrils, two ears and a mouth. Generally it passes through
the mouth at the time of an ordinary man's death. But the yogi who controls
the life airs in this way, generally releases the life air by puncturing
the cerebral hole in the head. Bhakti Bhakti-yoga is opposed to the concept of becoming one with the Supreme. It is believed that service to God is eternal and that the individual soul is never equal to or becomes God. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Ramanujacarya, and Madhvacarya all taught the bhakti path as the most efficient means to reach God realization. Mantra Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that by chanting the Lord's
holy names, specifically the maha-mantra, Hare Krishna Hare Krishna,
Krishna Krishna Hare Hare/ Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare,
one will attain transcendental devotion to God. It is considered that
Krishna and his name are nondifferent. Shaivites chant the mantra Om Namah Shivaya. Another
famous mantra is Sree Ram Jaya Ram, Jaya Jaya Ram/ Sree Ram Jaya
Ram, Jaya Jaya Ram. The most famous mantras are the gayatri-mantra and OM (aum). To get the proper effect from chanting the gayatri-mantra one must receive it from a guru. The gayatri-mantra is "OM bhur bhuvah svah, tat savitur varenyam, bhargo devasya dhimahi, dhiyo yo nah prachodayat." The gayatri-mantra is usually given to a teenage Brahmin when they receive their sacred thread and become "twice-born." There are many other mantras in Hinduism. Ahimsa Ahimsa means that one should act in such a way that will not put others into misery or cause them confusion. The human body is meant for spiritual realization, so anything not done to further that end commits violence on the human body. Mahatma Gandhi preached these teachings not only verbally, but also by his personal example in the way he lived. Ashram Another meaning has to do with the four spiritual orders of life according to the Vedic social system. This includes brahmacarya (student life), grihastha (married life), vanaprastha (retired life), and sannyasa (renounced order). Ashtanga
Yoga Yama means giving up vices. This means to make
one's life pure. Niyama means doing pure activities. This is
purity of the body. Asana means doing yoga postures. This is
the Hatha-yoga exercises that are commonly seen in the West. Pranayama involves controlling the airs within
the body so as to reverse the directions of their passage. The apana
air goes downward, and the prana air goes upward. The pranayama-yogi
practices breathing the opposite way until the currents are neutralized
into puraka, equilibrium. Offering the exhaled breath into the inhaled
breath is called recaka. When both air currents are completely stopped,
one is said to be in kumbhaka-yoga. By practice of kumbhaka-yoga, one
can increase the duration of life for perfection in spiritual realization.
By practicing pranayama one can increase the duration of life and therefore
give oneself more time to attain perfection in this life, rather than
waiting for the next. Pratyahara means to withdraw one's senses from
the sense objects like a tortoise withdraws his body into his shell.
Dharana mean to fix one's mind on an object. Dhyana means meditation.
Samadhi (trance) means that one realizes the Supersoul through transcendental mind and intelligence, without the misgivings of identifying the self with the Superself. It means that the mind is fixed for understanding the self. At this stage there is no longer any connection with mundane pleasure, for one is then transcendental to all sorts of happiness derived from the senses. Samadhi is never possible for persons interested in material sense enjoyment. Unless the yogi reaches this stage he is unsuccessful. Atman Caturmasya Sudarsana
Cakra Swastika Tantra By pronouncing the correct mantras in the correct way
and by using yantras, the Tantric yogi may be able to force the gods
to give them mystical powers, which may lead them to divine ecstasy.
Om mani padme hum which means "bliss, which is the jewel within
the lotus," is a famous six syllable Tantric chant. Some tantra
teaches that you get liberation by enjoyment. Shalagram-shilas Shalagram-shilas are always considered nondifferent from
Krishna Himself. The Padma Purana says: "Lord Vishnu may be worshiped
in the form of a Deity made of eight kinds of material: stone, wood,
metal, paint, written word, earth, jewels, and words within the mind.
But you should know that the worship of shalagram-shila is worship of
Sri Krishna Himself, since the Lord exists eternally in the shalagram-shila." According to their markings, or chakras, one can identify the shalagrams as one of the many incarnations of the Lord, such as Narasimha, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, etc. Brahmins often have a Shalagram-shila in their house and perform daily worship by bathing and offering aratik to it. Siva Lingas The linga may either be carved or natural. The natural
lingas are usually collected from a riverbed, often the Krishna River
in South India. A Siva-linga is bathed, offered flower garlands, covered
with milk, and offered food as part of the worship. A Siva-linga may
be chala (movable) or achala (immovable). A chala linga may be in a
house, carried, or sometimes worn around the neck. The achala lingas
are installed in temples. Lord Siva is worshiped as five element lingas at five different major temples in South India: 1. Sky or space (ether), Akash-linga, in Chidambaram,
Tamil Nadu. Siva Jyotirlingas 1. Sri Somnath in Somnath, Gujarat Holy Places There are four dhamas or kingdoms of God: Badrinath, Rameswaram,
Puri, and Dwarka. Each represents a planet in the spiritual sky. The
spiritual sky consists of the brahmajyoti (the effulgence around God's
body, the light into which yogis seeking liberation desire to merge)
and the Vaikunthas (spiritual planets). There are seven sacred cities known as the Saptapuris
(Mokshapuris): Ayodhya, Mathura, Mayapuri (Haridwar), Kashi (Varanasi),
Kanchi (Kanchipuram), Avantipuri (Ujjain), and Dwarka. The seven most
sacred rivers are the Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada,
Sindhu, and Kaveri. There are four Kumbha-melas, located at Allahabad,
Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nasik. There are eight self-manifested holy places (Svayam Vyakta
Ksetras) out of a list of 108 major Vishnu temples (108 Vaishnava Divya
Desams): Sri Rangam, Tirumala, Sri Mushnam, and Thotadri in South India;
Shalagram, Pushkar, Naimisaranya, and Badrinath in North India. Other important holy places are Dwarka, Ayodhya, Kurukshetra,
Naimisaranya, Nasik, Ujjain, Rameswaram, Gaya, Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath, Badrinath, Varanasi, and Prayag. Vrindavan and Mathura are
important because Lord Krishna appeared and performed his childhood
pastimes there. Dwarka is important because Lord Krishna lived there
later and performed many pastimes there. The Himalayas are considered a holy mountain range. The Himalaya Range is about 2,500 km long and 350 km wide, and there are hundreds of peaks over 6000m (20,000 ft) high. Vrindavana
and Braja Mandala Vrindavana and Mathura are the most important Vaishnava
holy places in all of India because Mathura is the birthplace of Lord
Krishna and Vrindavana is where He carried out His childhood pastimes.
It is said in the Padma Purana that "Simply by residing for one day in Mathura one will attain Hari-bhakti, devotion to Hari (Vishnu)." In the Adi-varaha Purana it is stated: "Any person who dies in any place within Mathura-a holy place, a home, or even a courtyard-certainly attains salvation. In this world Mathura is the best of all holy places beginning with Kashi." Ayurvedic
Medicine People come under three basic categories: Kapha, Pitta,
and Vata. Ayurvedic medicine is much more effective than other kinds
of medical treatments for digestive diseases and many of the typical
diseases of India. Ayurvedic medicine can cure hepatitis (jaundice);
there is no cure according to conventional medicine practiced in the
West. You can also take Ayurvedic medicine to avoid illness.
Many diseases in India are caused by the fact that a person's liver
or digestive system does not work properly. You can take Ayurvedic medicine
to tone your digestive system. This reduces the amount of undigested
food in your system, a cause of illness. If your food is properly digested,
you will have sufficient energy to fight disease. There are also Ayurvedic
massages to help cure various afflictions. The main problem with curative Ayurvedic treatment is finding a competent doctor to prescribe and administer it. I suggest you get recommendations before trusting your health to any particular doctor. Only if I have complete faith in an Ayurvedic doctor will I trust him to treat me for a serious disease. Cows The urine and dung (stool) of the cow are considered pure and are used in worship. Scientific studies have revealed both to be antiseptic. According to Vedic culture, beef-eating is strictly forbidden and is considered extremely sinful. If a person must eat meat, he should eat the meat of animals other than the cow. Beef is never sold in the streets in India. Daksha and
Lord Siva Story At the next yajna (sacrifice) that Daksha performed, he did not invite Lord Siva. Still, Sati decided to attend. When her father would not speak to her due to her connection with her husband, Sati was insulted and destroyed her body by meditating on the fiery elements (self-immolation). Hearing of his wife's death, Siva then created Virabhadra, a fearful black demon as tall as the sky, who had thousands of arms and was equipped with various weapons. Lord Siva sent Virabhadra and his followers to ruin the sacrifice and cut off Daksha's head. After fulfilling his assignment, Virabhadra threw Daksha's head into the sacrificial fire. Later, at Brahma's request, Siva restored Daksha to life, but because his head had been destroyed in the fire, he was given the head of a goat. Dance Bharata Natyam
Dance Bharata Natyam is usually performed by a solo woman. It
begins with alarippu, a gesture symbolizing that the body is an offering
to the gods. The dancer then combines nritya (emotions) with nritta
(pure dance), in which the dancers use heavy face and hand expressions.
They are accompanied by musicians and a nattuvanar. Bharata Natyam is mainly performed in Chennai, where there are regular performances at the Kalaksetra center, Music Academy, Raja Ananmalai Hall, Museum Theater, and at other places. Kathakali
Dance There are five primary characters, who are distinguished
by their costumes and makeup. Pacha (green) represents the noble-hearted
hero or god; kathi (knife) represents a mixture of nobility and evil
(both have their faces painted green, but the kathi has a knife pattern
on the cheek in red pigment and small white balls on the tip of the
nose and the middle of the forehead). The other characters are tati
(beard), kari (black), and minukku (polished). The bad guys usually
have black faces with white spots on their cheeks or noses. They may
also have red beards (thadi), a false nose, and a big frill. They place
a cunlappuva seed inside their eyelids to turn the white part of the
eyes red. Hanuman's face is red. The orchestra consists of the maddalam, edakka, chenta,
cymbals, and the gong. There is also a singer who directs the play;
the actors take their cues from him. Dances can last for hours. Originally, Kathakali was an
all-night performance in temples during festivals. A typical performance
would begin at 7 pm and end at 7 am. Dancers train for six to twenty
years to learn the dance steps and movements. It demands extraordinary
muscle control to contort the face and make the sudden leaps and spins.
It takes four hours to prepare for a performance-to put on makeup, elaborate
costumes, and head dresses. Everything is put on in a fixed order. Chatunni Paniker and Guru Gopinath are considered two of the best dancers in India. Kochi in Kerala is the best place to see this type of dance, as there are daily performances at the Cochin Cultural Centre. The India Foundation and Art Kerala, both near Ernakulam Railway Station, have regular performances from 7 to 10:30 pm. Other Dance
Styles Odissi is classical Orissan temple dancing. The dance is a ritual offering performed in temples. There are strict rules of position of feet, body, and hands. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda, which depicts Krishna's love for Radha, is a favorite subject of this style of dance. Ganges
and Yamuna Rivers The Srimad-Bhagavatam (5.17.1) glorifies the Ganges with
the following words: "Sukadeva Goswami said: My dear King, Lord
Vishnu, the enjoyer of all sacrifices, appeared as Vamanadeva in the
sacrificial arena of Bali Maharaja. Then he extended his left foot to
the end of the universe and pierced a hole in its covering with the
nail of his big toe. Through the hole, the pure water of the Causal
Ocean entered this universe as the Ganges River. Every living being
can immediately purify his mind of material contamination by touching
the transcendental water of the Ganges, yet its waters remain ever pure.
Because the Ganges directly touches the lotus feet of the Lord before
descending within this universe, she is known as Vishnupadi. Later she
received other names like Jahnavi and Bhagirathi." The water of the Ganges is called patita-pavani, the deliverer
of sinful living beings. Many sages, including Sankaracharya, have composed
prayers in praise of the Ganges. Sankaracharya recommends that a little
knowledge from Bhagavad-gita and the drinking of a little quantity of
Ganges water can save one from the punishment of Yamaraja, god of death. Ganges water does not become contaminated, even if stored for years. The purity of the Ganges has been documented by Mr. Henkin's research in the book The Ganga Trail. Water was taken from the mouth of a sewer as it emptied into the Ganges and after six hours, all the germs were dead. A corpse floating in the Ganges was towed to the shore and the water taken from next to the body was found to be swarming with cholera germs, but after six hours all the germs had died. When water was taken from a pure well and a few cholera germs were added to the water, the germs multiplied greatly. Ganges Story Later King Sagar sent his grandson Amsuman to retrieve
the horse. Kapiladeva returned the horse and told Amsuman that the sons
of King Sagar could be delivered if the Ganges descended to earth and
bathed them in her waters. King Sagar's great-great-grandson, Bhagiratha, eventually
pleased Mother Ganga and asked her to come to earth. Mother Ganga told
Bhagiratha that the force of the Ganges falling from heaven would be
too great for the earth to sustain, and that she needed someone to break
the fall. Bhagiratha then worshiped Lord Siva, who then agreed to accept
the descending river upon his head. King Bhagiratha then preceded the holy river with his chariot and ripped open a gorge in which the Ganges could flow. The river followed the King to Ganga Sagar at the Bay of Bengal, where Kapiladeva resides. The Ganges River then bathed the remains of the 60,000 sons and returned them to their eternal positions. Jyotisha
(Astrology) Kumbha-mela Kumbha-mela takes place every twelve years at four different
holy places in India: Prayag (Allahabad), Haridwar, Nasik, and Ujjain.
The Kumbha-mela at Prayag (Allahabad) is the largest event in the world,
with about fifteen million people attending. Many different sects of
holy men gather for Kumbha-mela. There is a grand procession on the
main bathing days. The Naga Babas (Siva worshipers) are famous because
they walk around naked. They cover their bodies with ash and wear their
hair in dreadlocks. They are always the first to bathe on major bathing
days. The time for Kumbha-mela is judged by the astrological
positions of Jupiter and the Sun. In Prayag (Allahabad) the Kumbha-mela
takes place during January-February, when Jupiter is in Taurus and the
Sun enters Capricorn. Kumbha-mela takes place in Haridwar in April-May,
when Jupiter is in Aquarius and the Sun is in Aries. In Nasik the Mela
is in July-September, when both Jupiter and the Sun are in Leo. In Ujjain
it is held in May-June, when Jupiter is in Scorpio and the Sun is in
Aries. Kumbha-mela lasts for one month while the Sun transits
the particular zodiacal sign. During the month there are certain important
bathing days, such as the Sankranti (when the Sun enters the next sign),
Ekadasi, and Amavasya (dark moon). The most important bathing day is
when the nectar actually falls from the sky. It is considered especially
auspicious to bathe at a particular place at just the right time. Kumbha-mela
Story As they were churning the milk ocean thirteen items were
produced from the ocean. The first item was a poison (halahala) so strong
it could kill all the people on earth. Lord Siva drank it and held it
in his throat. The poison turned his throat blue, and since that time,
Lord Siva has been known as Nila-kantha, or "blue-throated." Eventually the physician of the gods, Dhanvantari, who
is a partial incarnation of Lord Vishnu, appeared carrying a jug containing
the nectar (amrita). The demigods (devas) entrusted the nectar pot (amrita-kalasha)
to Brihaspati, Surya, Chandra, and Shani. These demigods ran from the
demons with the amrita-kalasha because the demons were powerful enough
to steal it for them. When the demons learned of the conspiracy, they
became angry and chased the four demigods. The chase lasted twelve days
in the life of the demigods (each demigod day is one year of our time),
at which time the devas and asuras circled the earth. Drops of nectar
fell at Haridwar, Allahabad (Prayag), Ujjain, and Nasik. Eventually, the demons were able to get the nectar, but they then fought among themselves as to who should have the honor of drinking from the jug first. Suddenly, Mohini (a partial incarnation of Lord Vishnu) appeared as the most beautiful woman in the universe. Bewildered by her beauty, the demons submitted to her and allowed her to decide who would receive the first drop of nectar. She knew that the demons were unfit to drink the nectar. She cheated them and instead distributed it to the demigods. Marriages An engagement ceremony (tilak) is held in which the forthcoming
marriage becomes finalized. Usually only relatives and close friends
attend this ceremony. After fixing an astrologically auspicious time,
a priest then fixes the exact date and time of the marriage. On the day of the marriage, the groom is taken on a horse
in procession to the bride's home. A brass band, relatives, and friends
will often accompany him. The bride normally does not leave her house
during the marriage period. The marriage is supposed to take place at
the bride's home, but it is often held in a hall, a large pandal (tent),
or a temple. The marriage area is decorated with flowers, auspicious
items, and other decorations. The bride and groom dress in elegant clothing, and the girl is often adorned with expensive jewelry. The couple sits next to each other cross-legged before a fire sacrifice, while the Brahmin priest chants various mantras. As they sit before the fire, someone ties one end of each of their clothes together to signify union. Then the bride's father places the bride's hand in the groom's hand while sacred prayers are chanted. They then hold their hands together, their hands are covered with a cloth, and a thread is wrapped around them. The bride and groom exchange rings in some weddings. As
part of the marriage ceremony, the bride and groom throw rice and other
grains, ghee (clarified butter), and other items into the fire. At the
end of the ceremony, they place a banana into the fire, and the bride
and groom walk around the sacred fire three to seven times (depending
to which caste they belong). The marriage usually takes a couple of days, but all the ceremonies involved can take more than a week. This is a typical marriage, but there are variations depending on the community and region. Ekadasi Yugas Satya yuga is characterized by virtue, wisdom and religion,
there being practically no ignorance and vice. It is called the golden
age. In this age people live for a hundred thousand years. It was very
suitable for self-realization because people could perform prolonged
meditation. In Treta yuga vice is introduced. It is called the silver
age and people live for ten thousand years. Self realization was achieved
by performing great sacrifices. In Dvapara yuga there is an even greater decline in virtue
and religion, vice increasing. People live for one thousands years in
this age and self realization is reached by worship of the Lord. In Kali-yuga vice increases to such a point that at the termination of the yuga the Supreme Lord Himself appears as the Kalki avatara, vanquishes the demons, saves His devotees, and commences another Satya-yuga. Then the process is set rolling again. Yuga Foods There are three types of foods: Tamasic (in the mode of
ignorance), Rajasic (in the mode of passion), and Sattvic (in the mode
of goodness). Sattvic food is juicy, fatty, wholesome and pleasing to the heart. Eating sattvic food increases the duration of life, purifies one's existence and gives strength, health, happiness and satisfaction. Sattvic foods are grains, fruits, nuts, and vegetables that are freshly prepared. Funeral Rites The nearest relative, usually the eldest son lights the funeral pyre. Whoever lights this fire is considered the legal heir. Brahmin priests chant Vedic mantras while the cremation is going on. Then the ashes are put in a sacred river such as the Ganges or Yamuna, and many times the ashes are taken to Haridwar, where the Ganges begins. Depending on the caste of the person, a mourning period
of about 14 days is observed. During this time all the furniture in
the living (sitting) room is taken out and all the relatives sit on
the floor. Relatives will also pay a condolence visit to the home of
the mourning family. Music There are two types of music in India, Hindustani and Karnatic music. Hindustani is North Indian and is influenced by Arabic and Persian cultures. Karnatic music is South Indian and has its roots in the Sama Veda, without outside influence. The musical notes are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni. These musical notes combined form a raga. In Karnatic music, few instruments are used to accompany singing. Karnatic music usually means devotional songs sung for deities. Musical Instruments Sitar: a stringed instrument similar to a guitar.
It has a long neck and a spherical gourd at the lower end. There are
five main metal strings and two drones. It is now a popular instrument
even in the West, but before the 18th century it was not used in classical
music. Tablas: a two-piece drum set consisting of the
tabla and the dagga. The tabla is made of metal and is broader than
the dagga at the top. The dagga is made of wood. The tabla can be tuned;
the dagga cannot. The tops of the drums are held by leather straps,
which can be tightened by moving round pieces of wood between the body
and the leather straps. Harmonium: a small reed organ with a bellow and
an air chamber. Classical musicians do not use it. Tanpura: a stringed instrument similar to the sitar,
with four drone strings. Each of the strings are plucked one after the
other to made a melodious sound. It provides background for other instruments
or singing. The round bottom is usually made of a dried gourd or wood. Dholak: a two-headed drum used all over India.
It is either held in a person's lap or suspended from the neck. Mridanga: a two-headed drum used to play devotional music. It is especially used in kirtan (congregational chanting). Karatals: small hand cymbals often used in devotional
music. Shehnai: a wind instrument often played in classical
concerts. It is similar to a clarinet. Namaste and
Greeting PERSONALITIES Caitanya
Mahaprabhu Gaudiya Vaishnavas accept Sri Caitanya as nondifferent
from Lord Krishna, in the form of a devotee. He taught that by chanting
the holy names of the Lord, specifically the mantra, Hare Krishna Hare
Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare/ Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare
Hare, one could attain transcendental devotion to God. He taught the philosophy that the Supreme Lord and the individual souls are inconceivably and simultaneously one and different. He explained the direct meaning of the sastras (scriptures) as devotion (bhakti) to Lord Krishna. Madhvacarya He possessed an unusually strong body and extraordinary
intellectual power. It is said that there was no limit to his physical
strength. He went to almost every sacred place of pilgrimage, where
he defeated scholars of rival schools and won them over to Vaishnavism. Madhvacarya traveled to the Himalayas to meet Srila Vyasadeva, and Vyasadeva gave him a shalagram-shila called Astamurti and approved his Bhagavad-gita commentary. Ramanujacarya
Mahapurna, a disciple of Yamunacarya, initiated him. He
took the sannyasa name Yatiraja and lived the later part of his life
in Sri-Rangam, a large temple located on an island by Tiruchirappalli.
He established seventy-four Sri Vaishnava centers, and converted thousands
of people, including several kings. Besides householders, his followers
included 700 sannyasis, 12,000 brahmacaris, and 300 ketti ammais (ladies
who have taken vows of renunciation). He left his body in 1137 AD, in
Sri-Rangam at the age of 120. He taught that there is a difference between the Supreme
Brahman and the individual soul. By God's grace, the jiva (individual
soul) can get out of the material world and attain the eternal abode
of Lord Vishnu. Ramanuja accepts three classes of jivas (living souls):
eternally liberated, forever bound, and those freed by devotion and
devotional practices. He taught that we should serve God in Vaikuntha
with awe and reverence. He always defeated any scholar who preached
the impersonal school of thought. Ramanuja initiated anyone regardless of caste. He established that the position of a Vaishnava surpasses all social considerations. Sankaracarya
(788-820) Sankaracarya wrote two major works, Sariraka-bhasya and
Vivekacudaani. For many, his Sariraka-bhasya is the definitive rendition
of Vedanta. He established four main maths in Puri, Joshimath, Dwarka,
and Sringeri. Sankara taught that the living entities are themselves
the Absolute Truth and that there is ultimately no variety, individuality,
or personality in spiritual existence. He said that the individuality
of both the Supreme Being and the individual is false. During his time, Buddhism had spread all over India. Sankara sought to reform and purify religious life by reinstating the authority of the Vedic scriptures, which Buddha had rejected. Since it would have been impossible to restore the Vedic literature's theistic conception just after Buddha's atheism, Sankara made a compromise to fit the time and circumstance. His interpretations resembled Buddhism, but unlike Buddhism, they were based on the authority of Vedic literature. The personal school of thought propounded by Ramanujacarya, Madhvacarya, and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu rejects his philosophy. Sri Andal She was the daughter of Periya Alwar, also known as Vishnucittar,
one of the Twelve Alwars. According to tradition, Periya Alwar used
to care for the flower gardens at the Vishnu temple in Srivilliputtur.
While tending the garden he found Andal as a baby and then raised her
as his own. This was around the 8th century. When her foster father
tried to find her a husband, she refused any mortal man and said she
would marry only the Lord. Periya Alwar used to make flower garlands for Lord Vishnu. One day he was shocked to find a human hair in the basket of flowers. The next day he watched and saw Andal standing in front of her dressing mirror wearing a garland. He scolded her and sent a fresh garland for the Lord. That night the Lord told him in a dream that he only likes the garlands worn first by Andal. He also requested him to bring Andal to Srirangam so he could marry her. When she saw the image of Sri Ranganatha, she became absorbed in him. The incarnation of the goddess of fortune known as Godadevi (Andal) was then married to the Deity, Sri Ranganatha. A.C. Bhaktivedanta
Swami Prabhupada He also translated, wrote, and published fifty-one volumes in twenty-eight languages, tens of millions of which have been distributed throughout the world. His followers know him as Srila Prabhupada. Sadhu Shaivites are worshipers of Siva. They are divided into
several sects. The Dasanami sect has ten branches throughout India.
The Naga Babas do not wear clothes and they carry tridents. They often
smoke ganja (hashish) and follow a Tantric form of worship. The Aghori
Yogis perform unusual rites involving dead bodies. Gorakhnathis wear
large earrings. A Vaishnava sadhu is devoted to Lord Vishnu or Krishna. There are several main schools of Vaishnava sadhus. They may have long hair, or their heads may be shaved. They may wear saffron or white. Vaishnavas wear vertical markings on their forehead, which will be slightly different depending on the sect represented. They also wear tulasi beads around their necks and carry a tulasi bead mala (chanting beads). Samskara
Purificatory Process Some samskaras are: Garbhadhana-ritual for conception, Simantonnayana-ritual to protect the fetus, Jatakarman-ritual at birth, includes an astrological chart, Annaprasana-feeding grains to the child for the first time, Chudakarana-first hair cutting ritual, Upanayana-giving the sacred thread and the boy becomes twice-born, Viveha-the marriage ceremony, Anthyesthi-the funeral ritual. After death the Sraddha ritual is performed for the departed relative. Also going to holy places is consisted an important ritual that a person should perform. Mandala Manus Moksha A guru or a transcendentalist is called a jivan-mukta, or one who is liberated in this very life and is not attached to the world. Nirvana Mudra Padma
(Lotus Flower) Rudraksha
Beads The beads are classified by the number of lines they have on them, which ranges from one to fourteen. The most common number of lines is five. Beads with one line are the rarest and it is considered auspicious to own one of these beads. Rudraksha beads are said to have different effects depending on the amount of lines they have. The seeds may be four different colors: white, red, golden, and black. The reddish color is the most common. The smaller the bead, the more potent it is and, therefore, it is usually more expensive. The beads are usually put on a string in numbers of 54 or 108. Sacred Trees
and Plants Tulasi is an extremely sacred plant and is considered worshipable. Almost every Vishnu temple has a tulasi garden. When food is offered to Lord Vishnu or Krishna, tulasi leaves are put on each preparation offered. Many people have a tulasi plant in their home. It is considered inauspicious to brush against a tulasi plant, even by mistake. Tulasi plants look like basil plants, but have smaller leaves. Pipal is considered sacred both to the Hindus and
the Buddhists. It is also known as a bodhi tree because Lord Buddha
attained enlightenment under this tree. It is worshiped all over India. The Banyan is also considered sacred. To mark the
spot where sacred pastimes took place we may find a banyan tree. It
is a very big tree, which has roots, which rise from the ground and
then come back to the ground and appear to be additional trunks. Trees that are considered sacred in relation to Siva are
the Ashoka, Champaka and Kesara. Kusha Grass and Durva Grass are considered sacred. Sages often sit on Kusha grass mats when they do their meditation. Durva Grass is said to be sacred to Ganesh. Sacred Mountains Meru is in the center of the three worlds and it is the pivot, which the universe goes around. Brahma has his abode on top of this mountain. Mount Kailash is where Siva lives. This mountain
is now located in Tibet and is very difficult to reach. Both Hindus
and Buddhists consider this mountain very sacred. Mount Kailash is a mountain 50 km in circumference, which
rises about 6,608m (22,028 ft) above sea level. It takes two or three
days to walk around Mount Kailash. It is believed that if you go around
Mount Kailash 108 times you attain nirvana (liberation). Mandara is a sacred mountain located in the Himalayas.
It was used as a churning rod by the demigods and demons to churn the
milk ocean in order to get the nectar of immortality. Govardhana Hill, located near Vrindavana, is considered
a very holy hill because it is intimately connected to Krishna. Himavan is a mountain that took the form of a man
and became the father of Parvati. Temples
Lord Vishnu has four hands, and each hand holds a particular
item-a conch shell, wheel, club, or lotus flower. Of these four emblems,
the cakra, or wheel, is the chief. The Lord's cakra is the symbol of
the power by which the Lord controls the universe. The spires of Vishnu
temples are marked with the cakra so that people may have the chance
to see this symbol from a long distance and at once remember Vishnu.
The purpose of building high temples is to give people a chance to see them from a distance. This system is carried on in India whenever a new temple is constructed, and it appears that this system is coming down from a time before recorded history. The deities can be moving (dhruvabera) or unmoving (achala). The unmoving deities are usually large and made of stone. The moving images are usually made of metal-bronze or an alloy of five metals (pancaloha). The moving deity is taken out on festive occasions and is used for bathing, ritualistic worship, etc. A third type of deity is cala-acala (both moving and unmoving). This would be the case with Lord Jagannatha in Puri, who goes out once a year for a chariot ride (Ratha-yatra). Important
Temples and Deities Each region has one or two important religious shrines.
There are the Guruvayur and Padmanabha temples in Kerala; Sri Meenakshi
(Madurai) and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu; Chamundeswari and Udupi in Karnataka;
Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh; Pandharpur in Maharashtra, Dwarka in Gujarat;
and Nathdwar in Rajasthan. Throughout India, the Supreme Lord is worshiped in various
forms. Vishnu is known by various names and at each temple, the Vishnu
Deity is given a special name. In Tamil Nadu he is worshiped as Varadaraja
Perumal in Kanchipuram, Ranganatha Swami in Sri Rangam, and Kallalagar
in Madurai. In Andhra Pradesh he appears as Tirupati Balaji, in Kerala
as Guruvayurappan, in Karnataka as the beautiful Udupi Krishna, in Gujarat
as Dwarkadish, and in Pandharpur as Sri Vitthala. Often the names of
the deity refer to specific pastimes the Lord performed. Some places have become important pilgrimage sites because
of the important temples located there. Such places are Tirupati, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kanchipuram, and Pandharpur, all famous because of the Vishnu temples
there. Kedarnath, Bhubaneswara, Madurai, and Rameswaram are famous for
having important Siva temples. Worshipers in a temple fall into three main groups: Vaishnavas (worshipers of Lord Vishnu or Lord Krishna), Shaivites (worshipers of Lord Siva), and Shaktas (worshipers of Durga, Kali, or Parvati). Temple Design The most important part of the temple is the sanctum sanctorum,
or garbha-griha, where the main deity of the temple is located. In a
South Indian temple, this room is usually square with a low roof and
no windows or doors other than the front door. A tower is always built over the deity. In North Indian
temples the tower is usually quite high; in South Indian temples the
tower is usually of low or medium height. The main entrance to the temple
is usually from the east. Inside the prakara (walls surrounding the temple) there will usually be minor temples that contain deities connected to the main deity. In a Vishnu temple, these deities may include Sita, Lakshmi, Hanuman, or Garuda. In a Siva temple, these deities may include Parvati, Ganesh, or Karttikeya (Subrahmanya). Dravidian
Temple Design The most sacred place is the pitha (altar), or pedestal,
of the Deity. The pitha is in the sanctum sanctorum (inner sanctum)
called the garbha-griha (womb house). This is where the altar of the
main deity of the temple is located. The garbha-griha of the main shrine
is usually semi-dark and has no sculpture other than the deity. This
part of the temple must be constructed first, and before construction
begins there is a ceremony known as impregnating (garbhadhana or garbha-nyasa).
There is usually a pradakshina path enabling pilgrims to circumambulate
the deities. The sanctum sanctorum (central shrine) is topped by a
pyramidal tower several stories high called vimana or sikhara. It is
crowned by a cakra in a Vishnu temple and a trident in a Siva temple. The inner sanctum and the pavilion in front of the main
altar are connected by a vestibule or porch called ardha mandapa (or
sometimes, antarala). There is a rectangular hall in front of the sanctum
(mukha mandapa) where the devotees stand to view the deity. The nityarchana
mandapa is where the daily worship of the small (moveable) representative
of the main deity is performed. The flight of stairs connecting the
first prakara with the sanctum sanctorum is called sopana. In front
of these stairs is the main mandapa. The subsidiary shrines or altars contain other deities,
including the consort of the main deity (Lakshmi or Parvati). The shrine
dedicated to the consort usually has her own sanctum (garbha-griha)
and ambulatory pathway (pradakshina-patha). In some larger temples,
they also have their own halls and pavilions. Many temples have several halls, such as ranga-mandapa-usually
a large hall with intricately carved pillars used as a large audience
pavilion; yajna-sala-hall for occasional sacrifices; nrittya mandapa-hall
for dance recitals; vahana-mandapa-place where the festival vehicles
are kept; kalyana-mandapa-marriage hall; asthana-mandapa-where the processional
deity holds court; alankara-mandapa-where the processional deity is
dressed before being taken on procession; vasanta-mandapa-hall in the
middle of the temple tank used for festivals; and utsava mandapa-hall
used on festive occasions. Temples will also usually have a treasury,
a kitchen (paka-sala), a store room (ugrana), and a dining hall. In the temple yard outside the main entrance of the inner sanctum is the flag post (dhvaja-stambha) and a platform for food offerings (bali-pitha). Both of these are usually right next to each other and directly in front of the doorway. Nearby is the vahana-mandapa where the Deity's carrier
(vahana) is located. This is Garuda in a Vishnu temple and Nandi in
a Siva temple. Dravidian
Temple Enclosures The garbha-griha is encircled by the first prakara, called
antara-mandala. This is a passageway; often narrow, permitting the devotees
to circumambulate the sanctum in a customary act of devotion. The flight
of stairs that connects the first prakara with the sanctum sanctorum
is called the sopana. In front of the sopana is the main mandapa. Around the main mandapa and antara-mandala is the second
prakara (antahara). This forms a broad verandah with doorways on all
four sides. The antahara leads out into an enclosure containing the
main bali-pitha. Vertical
Construction of Temples The temple is divided into six main vertical divisions: The last three items constitute the tower over the garbha-griha called the sikhara. Vimana refers to the entire sanctum from the basement to the pinnacle. Sikhara commonly refers to the superstructure over the sanctum, not the superstructure over the entrances of the surrounding walls. Andhra Pradesh
Temples Usually on either side of the main entrance of the ardha-mandapa
are two dwarapalakas (carvings of temple guards). In front of the sanctum
is located either Garuda (in a Vishnu temple) or Nandi (in a Siva temple). In most temples there are usually two sets of deities: One is permanent and is called the Mulabera; the other is taken on processions and is called the Utsavabera. In some temples there are different deities for abhisheka (bathing) and utsava (festivals). Kerala Temple
Design Surrounding this is a corridor or pillared hall called
either the nalambalam or chuttambalam, the outer portico of which is
called the belikkalpura, which contains the belikkal or platform for
food offerings. In front of the belikkal is the dwajasthamba (flag-staff).
Around the nalambalam could be the vilakkumatam, rows of lamps lit during
festivals. Outside this structure is a paved processional path. Normally the temple well is situated in the northeast corner of this area. The temple kitchen, madappalli, is usually in the nalambalam. There are often smaller shrines in the temple dedicated to the goddess of the temple and other deities. Orissan-style
Temples In front of the sanctum is the mukha-mandapa or mukhashala.
Sometimes it is called ardha-mandapa or sukanasi, depending on its size
in relation to the sanctum. It is used as a passage and sometimes to
keep food offerings on special occasions. After this is the antarala, which connects the sanctum
and mukha-mandapa to the mandapa, or pavilion hall. The antarala, which
is usually square and has a pyramidal roof, is also called the jagmohana
(world-delighter). In many cases the antarala is the same as the mukha-mandapa.
Sometimes one or two pavilions are added in front of the antarala, such
as the nat-mandir and the bhog-mandir. A mandapa (nritta-mandapa or navaranga) is a large hall
used for spiritual classes, singing, dancing, or chanting. In front of these is the dhvaja-stambha (flagpost). The
lanchana (insignia), which is made of brass or copper, is different
depending on the deity in the temple. This is usually the deity's carrier.
For Lord Vishnu it would be Garuda, for Lord Siva, Nandi, etc. The bali-pitha (pedestal of sacrificial offerings), which
is usually imprinted with the deity's footprint or a lotus, is near
the dhvaja-stamba. Inside the prakara there will usually be minor temples
that contain deities related to the main deity. In a Vishnu temple,
such deities may include Sita, Lakshmi, Hanuman, or Garuda. In a Siva
temple, these deities may include Parvati, Ganesh, or Subrahmanya. Within the temple's wall there may also be a kitchen, yajnashala (sacrificial arena), a well or tank (puskarini), flower gardens, a processional cart, and other buildings for worship or management of the temple. North India
Temples The parts of the temple are the garbha-griha, prakara, upa-tirtha, khanda, main tirtha, kshetra, mandala and/ or desha. The inner sanctum (altar) is called deul. Temple Priests Most of the priests are born in Brahmin families, but
some attained Brahminical status through initiation. In many places,
attaining brahminical status through initiation is not accepted as authentic;
there are those who believe that the status can be achieved only by
birth in a Brahmin family. Only the temple priest can enter the inner sanctum. None
of the administrative staff or donors can enter. Even among the temple
priests, not all of them are permitted entrance. Only the head priest
and a few assistants can actually touch the deity. Only a priest can clean the altar, and only qualified Brahmin priests can cook for the deity. Temple Worship Ramanujacarya called pancharatra, which was established
according to such texts as the Padma Samhita, Paramesvara Samhita, Sri
Prasna, and Jayakhya Samhita. The more ancient Vaikhanasa mode of worship
is also used in some South Indian temples. The fifteen most common forms of worship are: 1) offering
a seat (asana) for the moveable deity (which represents the main deity);
2) welcoming (svagata); 3) offering water to wash the feet (padya);
4) water offering (arghya); 5) sipping of water (acamana); 6) bathing
the deity (snana); 7) presenting garments and ornaments (vasana-bhushane);
8) offering sandal paste; 9) offering flowers; 10) offering incense
(dhupa); 11) offering lamps (dipa); 12) offering food (naivedya); 13)
offering water to rinse the mouth (punar achamaniya); 14) reciting prayers
to the Lord; and 15) offering prostrated obeisances (namaskriya). Other forms of worship are cleaning the altar, offering
a mirror, offering aratik or various items to the Lord, offering instrumental
music, reciting Vedic hymns, and offering the Lord food several times
a day. Worship of the Lord begins early in the morning (usually
between 4 or 5 am) and continues throughout the day (usually until 9
or 10 pm). After the bathing, the deity is decorated with fresh clothes
and ornaments, which may include valuable jewelry. Food is then offered
to the Lord, and an aratik presentation of different items is performed.
Besides the daily worship, festivals are celebrated. There
may be an annual Rathotsava festival in which the processional deity
is brought out of the temple and pulled on a cart around the streets.
Many festivals are on fixed dates and cannot be missed. In South India,
the major festival of the year is usually called Brahmotsava. Main Deity's
Consort Sometimes, as in Tirupati, the deity's consort could be in established in another temple some distance away. The consort of Sri Venkateswara, Sri Padmavathi, is in the town of Tiruchanur, 23 km from the main temple in Tirumala. Also, the temple dedicated to Rukmini, the wife of Sri Krishna, is located just outside the town of Dwarka, a few kilometers away from the temple dedicated to Krishna in Dwarka. Varnasrama
Dharma (The Caste System) The present system generally practiced in India is corrupt.
People claim their caste simply by birthright and do not consider nature
or qualification. At present, there is virtually no pure system of varnasrama-dharma
to be found in the world. There are also four spiritual orders: brahmacarya (celibate student), grihasta (married), vanaprastha (retired), and sannyasa (renounced). Brahmacharya is practiced from birth to approximately
age twenty-five by men. The brahmacari is trained to control his senses
through austerity and service to the guru. School begins at age five,
and a boy is expected to leave home to live with his teacher until the
completion of his education. The brahmacari's main duty is to study
and to perform menial service around the ashram. He is also taught the
scriptures along with arts and sciences. Grihasta, or the householder ashram, refers to marriage.
During marriage, people are permitted to engage in some sense pleasure,
but only in a regulated way. The goal of grihastha life, like brahmacharya,
is spiritually purification. Upon finishing his education, a student
returns home and accepts a wife. The wife is known as ardhangini, the
man's second half. Without a wife's participation, religious activities
cannot be performed. Grihastas are supposed to earn a living and to
support the other orders of life. A grihasta is also expected to be
hospitable and welcoming when guests arrive at his home. Sannyasa is the forth and last order of life, the renounced order when all family connections are broken to become fully dedicated to the cultivation of spiritual life. Generally, a sannyasi travels to preach and engages in meditation and devotional service. He lives on what is given in charity and on fruits and leaves in the forest. Intimate relationships with women are forbidden-he is even forbidden to talk with a woman in a secluded place. Possession of wealth for sense gratification is also strictly forbidden. 108 Divya
Desams & the Alwars The Divya Desam temples can be grouped broadly into six
geographical locations: Thondai Nadu, which is in the Chennai and Chengalput
area; Chola Nadu (Chozha Naattu); Nadu Naattu; Pandya Nadu; Vada Nadu;
and Paraloka. Many times it is possible to visit several Divya Desam
temples in one day. In the area of Kanchipuram there are fourteen different
Divya Desam temples, which can be visited within one or two days. The Twelve Alwars are Kulasekhara Alwar, Pey Alwar, Tirumalisai Alwar, Thirumangai Alwar, Tondaradippadi Alwar, Bhutatt Alwar, Poygai Alwar, Nammalwar, Periy Alwar, Andal, Tiruppan Alwar, and Madhurakavi. Four of the Alwars were born within 80 km of Kanchipuram. Tirtha Yatra It is a general rule to shave your head at a place of pilgrimage. You can especially notice this at Tirupati, where even many of the women have their heads cleanly shaven. One is not supposed to take gifts when he goes to a tirtha, rather one is supposed to give religious charity. It is recommended that as far as possible one should go to a tirtha by foot. Yantras Yantras are usually composed of a complex figure of geometrical
forms drawn around a center point (bindu). They are often comprised
of a series of triangles surrounded by a square. They are all based
on mathematical formulas. There are over nine hundred different yantras
representing deities such as Krishna, Siva, Durga, Vishnu, and Ganesh.
One of the most famous and powerful yantra is the Sri
Yantra, or Sri Chakra. This yantra represents both Siva and Shakti,
and it is often seen in Shakti temples. This yantra has a dot (bindu)
surrounded by nine triangles (tirkona). Five face down and four up.
The intersection of the nine triangles makes forty-three triangles in
total. The triangles are surrounded by two circles, one possessing eight
lotus petals and the outer sixteen. This figure is then surrounded by
another three circles. On the outside of the yantra are four squares,
each with openings in the middle of each side. The yantra on the front
cover is the Sri Yantra The mantra chanted with this yantra : "Om
sharing Haring Kaling Haring Shri Mahalakshmaya Namaha." It is best that a yantra be created by one qualified in
yantric science, and the correct mantras chanted to give the yantra
power. Most qualified yantric priests etch their yantras into gold,
silver, copper, or stainless steel, although sometimes they draw them
on paper. Each planet has its own yantra, which can be worshipped
to free oneself from those planets' negative effects. The yantras can
also be used to increase the planets' beneficial aspects. It is best
to have yantras prescribed by a qualified astrologer, and then installed
by him. Yantras should be properly worshipped if the full effect is
desired. It is important that the proper mantras be chanted while worshipping
yantras. Besides diagram yantras, there are "numerical yantras." Each numerical yantra is based on a root number and contains nine divisions (three horizontally, and three vertically). Numbers go into each of the nine squares, and the planet's base number is set in the top middle square. The numerals in each direction total the same number horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Writing and
Worshipping Yantras It is also important that the person drawing a yantra
sits facing the correct direction. Yantras should also be drawn at particular
auspicious times and days. Different times of the day are ruled by different
planets, so it is important to begin the yantra at a time ruled by the
particular deity one is hoping to propitiate. Yantras should be worshipped by holding flowers with two hands and chanting the correct mantra over the yantra. Each yantra represents a particular deity, so one should meditate on this deity while worshipping. Holy water, ideally from a sacred river such as the Ganges, should be offered to the yantra. Sandalwood paste (chandan) should be placed on the yantra along with garlands of flowers, and unhusked rice. Then the worshipper should offer incense and a lamp, then fruit and betel nut, and finally, prayers. Yoga Vedic Sciences Mathematics in India was well developed in 2,500 BC. Indian
mathematicians developed the zero and the system of using a decimal
point. Algebra was used in ancient astronomy. The Surya Siddhanta written
around 2,000 BC contains a system of trigonometry and geometry. There was an ancient system of warfare that was developed thousands of years ago. In the Mahabharata there is much detail of tactical warfare. Islam The messenger Muhammad (570-632) founded Islam. He was born in 570 AD at Mecca, in Saudi Arabia. He had his first divine manifestation from Allah (God) in 610. He preached against idol worship, which at that time was popular in Mecca. Islam is considered to have been founded in 622 AD, which is when Muhammad and his followers were exiled from Mecca and made the hijra, or the "going to Medina" ("City of the Prophet") journey. Muhammad led his people into battles against the Meccans,
under the jihad understanding that it was on behalf of God. This was
the beginning of the concept of "holy war," which helped the
Muslims expand Islam. Mecca surrendered to Muhammad in 630, and it then
became the pilgrimage center for Islam. To become a Muslim one simply has to declare, "La
illaha illa 'llah Muhammad Rasulu 'llah'": "There is no god
but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet." Muslims believe that the
body is resurrected after death. They believe that if someone worships
Allah, they will go to heaven at death, which is a place of pleasure;
if one does not worship Allah, he will go to hell, a place of eternal
suffering and torture. The teachings of the Muslims closely follow the Bible's
Old Testament. Moses and Jesus are considered to be Muslim prophets,
but Jesus is not accepted as the son of God. Muslims believe that it
is sinful to worship images of God Muslims must fast during the month of Ramadan. Friday
is the Sabbath, and the main mosque in a town is known as the Jama Masjid
or Friday Mosque. The main worship is performed at noon on Fridays.
Mosques usually have a round dome, a mihrab to indicate the direction
of Mecca, high minarets, a balcony for women, a water tank, and a mimbar
or platform from which the Friday prayer is led. Muslims follows various prohibitions: no alcohol, no gambling,
no eating of pork, and they are not permitted to charge interest for
loans. Islam split into two sects in the first century of its
existence, now known as the Sunnis and Shi'is. Both sects believe in
the holiness of the Koran, but they disagree both on Muhammad 's successor
and on the interpretation of certain verses in the Koran. The Sunnis
are a majority in Southeast Asia. They believe that Muhammad did not
appoint a successor, and that after his death, the first three caliphs
(representatives) were Abu Bak'r, Omar, and Uthman, and that Ali, Muhammad
's son-in-law, was the fourth caliph. The Shi'is believe that Ali was
the first rightful caliph, and that Omar and Abu Bak'r were usurpers.
Sufi Muslims practice renunciation and self-denial for
God's service. They use music and dance to come closer to God, which
more orthodox Muslims would not use. July 16, 622 AD is the first day of the Muslim calendar.
This is the day that Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina. Each year
is divided into 12 lunar months, each lasting from twenty-nine to thirty-nine
days. Women in strictly orthodox communities usually wear a
black burqa, an outfit that covers them from head to toe, and a face
veil. Islam is the major religion in most of the Middle East, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Beginning in the 12th century and lasting for about six hundred years, most of Northern India was controlled by Muslim rulers. The Muslim Mughal Empire eventually spread over most of India. Despite their long rule, only about twenty-five percent of the population converted to Islam. Most of these people came from lower castes, as Islam provided them the opportunity to escape from their socially designated roles. Buddhism There are two major schools of thought in Buddhism. Under
the Theravada (doctrine of the elders) or Hinayana ("lesser vehicle")
school of thought, Buddha's form cannot be displayed as a human, but
is instead shown through symbolism-footprints, the wheel of life, the
bo tree under which he sat to attain enlightenment, an elephant (his
mother saw an elephant in a dream before he was born), and stupas. Mahayana
("greater vehicle") Buddhism, in which statues and pictures
of Buddha are shown, became popular around 100 AD. Hinayana Buddhism
started to decline at this time and lost popularity around 400 AD. Hinayana followers say that the path to nirvana is an
individual quest. Mahayana followers believe that everyone can attain
nirvana, and they aspire to reach the state of Buddhahood not for themselves,
but in order to help other living entities. There are four important places connected with Buddha's
life: his birth site in Lumbini, Nepal; the site of his enlightenment
in Bodh Gaya, Bihar; the site of his first sermon in Sarnath, near Varanasi;
and the place of his death in Kushinagar, UP. When Buddha died, his
body was cremated and the ashes given to people to whom he had preached.
Some of these ashes were buried under stupas throughout India. At Rajgir, Buddha converted King Bimbisara to Buddhism,
and the First Buddhist Council was held there. At Vaishali, Buddha preached
his last sermon and announced his approaching nirvana. At Nalanda are
the remains of an ancient Buddhist University. These three places are
all in Bihar near Patna. Other places in India are famous Buddhist places
because of monuments, temples, or cave temples built there. The finest
of these are at Ajanta and Ellora in Maharashtra, Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh,
and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. Buddha preached Four Noble Truths: (1) life is painful
because nothing in this material world is permanent or reliable; (2)
suffering is caused by desire, attachment, and ignorance; (3) there
is a state beyond suffering called nirvana; and (4) nirvana is reached
by following the eight-fold path of right understanding, right thought,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,
and right concentration. By following this path for a series of birth, an aspirant
eventually attains nirvana and freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
Buddhists teach about the law of karma in which our actions in this
life determine our next birth. Lord Buddha is considered to be one of the ten major incarnations
of Lord Vishnu by Hindus. He rejected the teachings of the Vedic scriptures
and the Vedic gods in order to stop people's use of the Vedas to justify
animal slaughter in the name of performing sacrifice. Thus even though
followers of the Vedas accept Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, they
reject his atheistic philosophy. Buddhism spread over a good part of India during the time of Emperor Ashoka (272-32 BC), after the emperor's conversion. Ashoka sent people all over South Asia to preach Buddhist doctrine. He later sent his son to Sri Lanka to establish Buddhism there. From the 7th to 12th centuries AD, Buddhism began to decline in India due to the influential preaching of Sankaracharya, Ramanujacarya, and Madhvacarya, all of whom gradually reintroduced the Vedic conclusions. As a final blow to Buddhism, the Muslims carried out a large-scale slaughter of monks, destroying their monasteries and temples. Sikhism The Sikh religion was originally intended to bring the
Hindu and Islamic religions together. It is similar to Hinduism, but
the Sikhs are opposed to caste distinctions and pilgrimage to holy rivers.
They are not opposed to pilgrimage to holy sites. Sikhs do visit holy
places. They believe in one God and do not believe in worshipping images.
They believe that Sikhs should be honest, and they will give shelter
to anyone who wants to stay in their gurudwaras. They believe in karma
and the cycle of repeated birth and death (samsara). They baptize their
children and cremate their dead. The holy book of the Sikh religion is called the Granth
Sahib. Guru Nanak was the first of ten gurus. His disciple, Guru Angad,
recorded Guru Nanak's hymns and added his own in a new script called
Gurumukhi. Gurumukhi has formed the present-day Punjabi script. Guru Ram Das (1552-1575) founded the city of Amritsar.
Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth, a prayer book of the gurus. Emperor
Jehangir executed him. The last Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh (1666-1708), did not
name a successor but said the Sikh holy book should be accepted as guru.
The Granth Sahib consists of the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus along
with the teachings of Hindu and Muslim saints. Guru Gobind Singh introduced
a military inflection into the Sikh religion because the Sikhs were
being heavily persecuted. This is when the Khalsa ("the pure")
brotherhood was formed. Most Sikhs have the name Singh, "Lion."
The Sikhs are supposed to wear the following five symbols
(kakkars): a sword, kripan; a comb, kangh; short drawers, kacha; an
iron ring on the right arm, kada; and long hair, kesh. Because Sikh
men do not cut their hair throughout their lives, they are easy to identify.
They cover their hair with a turban, and keep their beards long, sometimes
twisting them up under their turbans. Sikhs have prohibitions against
smoking, eating halal meat, and having sex with Muslims. The Sikhs worship congregationally in temples called gurudwaras ("gateway to the guru"). A gurudwara usually has a dome on top and a yellow flag. The Golden Temple in Amritsar, built at the end of the 16th century, is the most important Sikh temple. There are no priests or fixed times for worship, but people normally come to the gurudwaras in the mornings and evenings. Many worshipers visit the gurudwaras on the first day of the year and on Ekadasi (eleventh day of the lunar month). Worship in a gurudwara consists of chanting verses from the Adi Granth. Jainism Vardhamma, who was known as Mahavir (599-526 BC) was the twenty-fourth teacher. Mahavir means "great hero." He was born near the border of India and Nepal, about 50 km north of Patna, into a ksatriyas family. He renounced his family life and all his possessions when he was thirty years old, and wandered as an ascetic. He died in 526 BC, so this religion is ancient. Jains believe in ahimsa (nonviolence). They believe that
every living entity, even insects and plants, has an eternal and indestructible
soul (jiva) within it. Orthodox Jains are strict vegetarians and also
avoid onions and garlic. Traditionally, they are not supposed to farm,
so that they can avoid killing insects and small animals. Jains do not accept the Vedas, but they do believe in
karma, reincarnation, that the universe is infinite, and that one can
eventually attain moksha (liberation) by following the path of the tirthankaras.
They believe that to become free of karma-and therefore the wheel of
birth and death-requires a life of meditation and austerity, the renunciation
of attachment and of impure thoughts. The tirthankaras are the supreme
object of worship. They do not accept the caste system. Jains are pious. They are prohibited from lying or stealing,
must avoid useless actions, talk, or thoughts, and must eat only pure
food. Ideally, they should practice celibacy. Mahavir taught that one's
state of consciousness was directly influenced by the food he eats.
Jains must also give charity, either in the form of knowledge or money.
Jains are good businessmen. The Jains are divided into two sects, the Digambaras ("sky-clad")
and the Svetambaras ("white-robed"), who are more numerous.
They worship in different temples. The Digambaras monks are austere.
They renounce all material possessions, even to the point of wearing
clothes. The Sravanabelagola shrine in Karnataka is a Digambara temple.
In this temple there is an 18m high sculpture of Gomateswara, which
was built around 938 AD. Often Svetambara monks wear a white cloth to
cover their mouths so that they will not accidentally swallow insects
and thus commit violence. Jains have constructed some of the most impressively carved temples in India. The temples they build are not usually so large, but the sculptures on the temples can be spectacular. They tend to build a complex of outstanding temples at a time. One of the most important Svetambara tirthas, Shatrunjaya, near Palitana in eastern Gujarat, has hundreds of temples located on a hilltop. Zoroastrianism There are about 100,000 Parsis in India; most live in
Mumbai. The first Parsis arrived in India in 936 AD in Gujarat. They
have a lot of influence in India because some of them are wealthy. Their
numbers are continually decreasing in India because they do not believe
in marriage outside their religion. When a mixed marriage does occur,
the children are not considered Parsis. Parsis wear a sacred thread (kasti) and a sacred shirt (sadra). They worship fire as God's representative in their temples. There are eight main fire temples in India-four in Mumbai and one each in Udwada and Navsari, and two in Surat. Only Parsis can enter their temples. They do not bury or cremate their dead because this pollutes the elements consisting of fire, air, water, or earth. They leave the bodies of their dead on the "Tower of Silence," where they are eaten by vultures.
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